Showing posts with label history. Show all posts
Showing posts with label history. Show all posts

Wednesday, August 30, 2023

India’s Famed Koh-i-Noor Diamond

Photo: Baunat
India's famed Koh-i-Noor (meaning "Mountain of Light") Diamond is one of the most extraordinary diamonds in the world. First mentioned in history in the 14th century, it was owned by the ruling maharajahs of India, but after bloody battles, the diamond became a spoil of war to various Sikh, Mogul, and Persian rulers.

Prince Duleep Singh
It was given as a gift to Queen Victoria during the colonial era when the powerful British East India Tea Company annexed Punjab (then in India, today also in Pakistan) in 1849 forcing its 11-year-old ruler, Prince Sir Duleep Singh, into abdicating and surrendering his lands and prized diamond via the Treaty of Lahore. The legendary diamond was singled out as a symbol of conquest.* The British authorities also separated the boy from his mother, refusing to let him see her for 13 years. They brought him to England where he was educated, given estates, a palace, and the privileges that reflected his rank as a Prince and Maharaja, plus a yearly pension (of $3,145,248 in today's value) as long as he pledged obedience to the Crown and British government, which is the rub of colonialism. Except for 2 controlled visits to India, Maharaja Duleep Singh spent the rest of his life in exile. (His ... is a fascinating life and family. His daughter Princess Sophia Duleep Singh was a prominent Indian British suffragette who was instrumental in helping women win the right to vote in Great Britain. It's admirable how the family balanced retaining their Indian heritage with assimilating into high English society. The Maharaja longed to return to his throne and wrestled with a measure of regret in adulthood; still, he remained respectful and a close friend of Queen Victoria.)

Replica of Kohinoor Diamond before recut
The earliest recorded weight of the Koh-i-Noor Diamond is 186 carats. Cut in the style of Mughal-era diamonds, it resembled the diamonds in the modern Iranian Crown Jewels. This was disappointing to Western eyes, so Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria, had it recut by a leading mineralogist, James Tennant, (removing some discovered internal flaws) into a more dazzling brilliant cut stone. The colorless D-grade diamond was cut into a cushion shape with excellent clarity. Unfortunately, it also reduced the size of the diamond from 186 carats (or 191 modern carats) down to 105.6 carats. Diamond experts all agree it enhanced the beauty of the diamond and yet, at the loss of its size and history.

Queen Victoria (and Prince Albert) were quite taken with and became lifelong friends of Maharaja Duleep Singh (and later on with his daughters). The British Queen showed Prince Duleep Singh his lost diamond. Reportedly the 16-year-old Maharaja grew silent with emotion while holding and twirling it for 1/4 hour in his hands ... surely recalling how it belonged to his family and was later seized from him at a tender age.

After Queen Victoria's death, the Koh-i-Noor was added to the Crown Jewels. It was mounted in the crown of Queen Alexandra, the wife of Edward VII to use during her coronation in 1902. Queen Mary (wife of George V) and Queen Elizabeth (wife of George VI) also used the Koh-i-Noor Diamond in their coronation crowns. Due to its enduring controversy, the diamond was removed from the crown for Queen Camilia's coronation in 2023. 

Ever since India gained its independence in 1947, there have been cries to return the Koh-i-Noor Diamond to India. Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan also claim ownership resulting from the diamond exchanging hands as a spoil of war by the victors of those countries over the years.

Photo: Baunat - how the Kohinoor compares in size to other well-known gems

I realize how hair-splittingly difficult it is to determine what is the right thing to do after centuries of the Koh-i-Noor Diamond's complex history, however IMHO, India has the strongest argument for ownership. As a Westerner, I'm biased towards wanting the diamond to stay in the Tower of London, but there's no doubt the diamond was acquired as the spoil of war under the strongarm of colonialism coupled with the coercion of a powerless 11-year-old boy ruler to sign it away. In the 21st century, an 11-year-old cannot sign legally binding contracts or treaties.

3rd daughter Sophia Duleep Singh with her mother, Bamba Muller and with her elder sisters, Catherine and Bamba

I also recognize the fear of opening a Pandora's Box by returning the Koh-i-Noor Diamond to India. Granted, not everything in history can be made right because time makes it convoluted and impossible to correct every wrong. I think we must go on a case-by-case basis. Just because righting a wrong is challenging doesn't mean it should not be attempted.
Click here for this photo credit: Duleep is seated, left of the future King Edward VII, at the time of the photo, still Prince of Wales.
Today there are no living Duleep Singh direct descendants, but India understandably still feels the sting of how the Koh-i-Noor Diamond was taken from its country. What a magnanimous diplomatic gesture it would be for the British royal family to return the diamond to India. They would likely not even miss it (having so many other jewels), and it would loudly honor India and the last owner of the diamond, Maharaja Sir Duleep Singh.  

Yikes, now Pakistan will dislike me for thinking that India has the strongest suit ... as it also has a logical claim. In modern times before 1947, there was only India, a colony of the Britain Empire. In 1947 the British colony became two independent states of India and Pakistan. Punjab was divided by religion, with the western portion becoming Pakistan, and the rest of Punjab becoming part of India So it's a judgment call. Perhaps all 3 countries with the royal family could sit down at the table to decide.

So what do you think? Great Britain has it, but who should own the Koh-i-Noor Diamond? A difficult and problematic question for sure!

*The timing of the East India Tea Company was not by chance. Whenever a boy ruler comes to the throne, other powers who want control of a country's land or treasures use the country's weakness as the time to strike. The head of the mighty East Indian Tea Company, Lord Dalhousie, said he targeted the Koh-i-noor Diamond with the aim of giving it to Queen Victoria to be added to the Crown Jewels as a symbol of conquest. An elaborate ceremony occurred for the 11-year-old Maharaja to hand over the jewel as a sign of his submission to the Crown. After recutting it, Queen Victoria wore the Koh-i-Noor Diamond as a brooch. It became part of the Crown Jewels soon after her son Edward VII became King.

Duleep Singh's mother was exiled to Napal and her son was adopted and raised by British diplomat John Spencer Login and his wife whom the boy grew close to, and it was a warm, trusting relationship. They took him on tours of Europe.


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Wednesday, December 14, 2022

The Wittelsbach-Graff Blue Diamond

On the left is the 35.56-carat cushion-shaped Wittelsbach diamond and on the right is the same diamond recut to 31.06 carats. Over billions of years, the element carbon (with a trace of boron) turned into a diamond. It's a stunning stone with a long history that raises a 21st-century conundrum to ponder. Let's begin the journey ...

The Wittelsbach-Graff diamond (↖left) compared to the Hope diamond
The rare blue diamond originates from Kollur Mine, India. King Felip IV of Spain is thought to have bought and included it in the dowry of his beloved 15-year-old daughter, Infanta Margaret Teresa in 1664 when she married Leopold I, the Holy Roman Emperor. The jewel was in the possession of the Habsburg family until it came to Munich, Germany in 1722 when Archduchess Maria Amalia, a Habsburg, married Karl of Bavaria of the Wittelsbach royal house. The gemstone then remained in the Wittelsbach family until it was sold in 1951 to a mystery buyer, then resold a few more times until in 2008 the London jeweler, Laurence Graff, bought it for $24.3 million. In 2010 the billionaire jeweler announced he had recut the diamond to get rid of its 350-year history of nicks, cuts, chips, and scratches from being set and reset into jewelry and a crown.
Erasing the history of the diamond to improve its girdle not only reduced the gemstone by 40%, but it has also started a controversy. Renamed the Wittelsbach-Graff diamond, the alterations enhanced its blue color from grey-blue to blue-blue and clarity from VS1 (very slightly included) to IF (internally flawless), as well as, arguably increased its monetary value by giving it a higher grade and modern cut.

So in the life of this diamond, there are 2 values at play, and what's right isn't always clear-cut, is it? The Habsburgs-Wittelsbachs wouldn't recognize their diamond today. Soooo what would you have done and why?


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Tuesday, November 15, 2022

Sisi's Stars

I've always loved the famous jewels Empress Elisabeth of Austria (1837 - 1898), born into the royal Bavarian House of Wittelsbach, wore in her hair. 

The Empress ordered a set of at least 27 10-pointed stars, set with diamonds and pearls, which she could
wear as a necklace, tiara, pendant, brooches, or as hair clips.

Star jewelry was popular in the Victorian era, and Sisi's gorgeous set was designed by the Austrian court jeweler, A. E. Köchert in 1855, one year after her marriage to Emperor Franz Joseph. They are eternalized in her celebrated portrait (of 1865) by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, the best royal portrait painter of the age, IMHO. 

After her son, Crown Prince Rudolf's, shocking murder-suicide [known in history as the Mayerling Incident] in 1889, Sisi, never again wore jewelry and give the set away. Some of the stars went to her ladies-in-waiting, and the rest she left to family members. In 1902, Sisi's stars were the something old, her granddaughter and Crown Prince Rudolf's daughter, Elisabeth (known as the Red Archduchess), wore on her wedding day. According to the jeweler, "the trail of the stars has since gone cold, and only three survive."

Nowadays you can still buy a version of Sisi's stars from Köchert. At 4,400 - 5,400 Euros (or $4,544 - $5,578), I'm waiting for my Fairy Godmother👗 to appear to present me with a pair in the form of earrings. Any design is fine, Fairy Mother ... post or dangling! Oh, where is she hiding? C'mon, let's do this, Fairy Godmother, I love them so!"😍

Another place you can get replicas is from the Sisishop, the museum shop of the Schoenbrunn in Vienna, but like the jewelry sold at all museums, they are overpriced. You'll pay 4 - 5 times more than the true value for sterling silver jewelry with cubic zirconia stones ... and why on earth would my Fairy Godmother skimp and not step up her magic powers to 
☆・*Bibbidi Bobbodi Boo☆・*。me Sisi's white gold and diamond earrings? Just saying, if she has the magic, and no mortgage to worry about, she'd spare no expense, no?💥😛☆・*。



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The Marriage Of Charles II And Catherine Of Braganza

Thursday, September 8, 2022

The Passing Of Queen Elizabeth II: America Says Goodbye Too

Queen Elizabeth Alexandra Mary (April 21, 1926 - September 8, 2022)

It's no secret that Americans love the British monarchy nearly as much as the British do, and Queen Elizabeth II is the only head of the family and realm many of us know in our lifetime. For 70 years the Queen ruled, and it seems unreal that she died today, but what a life of duty she lived for 96 years, and what an impeccable role model she was for the world. Rarely, if ever, stepping a foot wrong, and as one of her British subjects put it, "She never let us down." Of all the prominent people she met and illustrious events, she lead or took part in, perhaps being our rock by never letting us down is her true legacy. 
Photo: The US Sun - Bournemouth News - 8 months old

Despite always knowing the day would come, it's impossible not to be sad and devastated about losing such a beloved Queen, Great Britain's longest reigning monarch. Again today we are reminded that it doesn't take long to live a life. 

Photo: Getty

With a heavy heart, we send our condolences to her family and country. With certainty, we will miss her too, not only for the Queen that she was, but for the human being, she was. The twinkle of her eyes will always remain with us. R.I.P. Your Majesty, and long live your son, King Charles III (Confirmed today. Monarchs choose the name he or she will be known as). The King will address the nation tomorrow.💂

Photo: CNN
" Grief is the price we pay for love." - Words of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.

👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑👑

With the Queen's passing [some reports claim at the time she passed -- I can't verify the hour] two rainbows appeared, a double one over Buckingham Palace, her London home and another over Windsor Castle, her summer residence in Scotland where she died.

Photo: Bloomberg News - Buckingham Palace - September 8, 2022

Photo: Chris Jackson - Getty - Windsor Castle - September 8, 2022

Some people believe the Queen is letting us know she's in a good place, united with the people she loved. What do you think?



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Monday, August 22, 2022

My Favorite Royal Crowns Of Europe

Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire

Today I'm showing my jewelry-loving readers ornate, historical eye candy. My original idea was to feature in detail 10 famous Crowns of western countries, but guess what? In my research, I discovered Matt Baker of UsefulCharts has already compiled them and as usual, his work is excellent. Well, thundering typhoons ... Matt Baker, not only did you beat me by a year, you took away the illusion that my brilliant idea is unique ... the nerve!🙂

So instead, I'll play a game of picking my favorite European royal crowns leaning towards coronation crowns (since many European royal houses have more crowns than we can count). Thanks to Matt Baker's thoroughness, you can watch his video here for the history and details of my 6 favs (plus a few more on his list of 10 famous crowns). As it turns out he did the work for me on this topic!

So here are My 6 Favorite Royal Crowns - I've included not 1, but 2 from the United Kingdom because Queen Elizabeth II uses two. Both have crowned English and British monarchs, and I don't want to break them up. Drum roll, please🥁... here we go:

1) The Crown of Rudolf II, later the Imperial Crown of Austria - Made in 1602 to crown Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, it became the official crown of the newly constituted Austrian Empire in 1804 and today is preserved in the Austrian Imperial Treasury. The crown is pure gold, partially enameled, and scattered with diamonds, sapphires, rubies, emeralds, and pearls. Wow, the Ceylon blue sapphire at the top is stunning!

2) Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire - Here is a side view in addition to the front view at the top👆 of the blog. Thought to be made in 962 AD in Western Germany for the coronation of Holy Roman Emperor Otto I, the crown has 8 hinged 22-carat gold plates of images joined together forming an octagon shape. It has 144 unfaceted stones including sapphires, emeralds, and amethysts, plus pearls. To think that it sat on the head of Charles V on February 24, 1530, along with prior Holy Roman Emperors and we still have it! Nowadays it is kept in the Imperial Treasury in Vienna, Austria.

The Imperial State Crown

3) (a) The Imperial State Crown [of the United Kingdom] - Shown is both the front and back view of the crown, it was selected by Queen Victoria and Edward VII for each of their coronations. Queen Elizabeth II uses the Imperial State Crown to open Parliament. It has 2,901 precious stones, including the familiar Cullinan II diamond, St. Edward's Sapphire, the Stuart Sapphire, and the Black Prince's Ruby (which is really a red spinel).💂

St Edward's Crown

(b) St. Edward's Crown (also part of the UK's crown jewels) - The original crown was made in the 11th century, named after the last Anglo-Saxon English King, Edward the Confessor, and remade for Charles II for his 1661 coronation after the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660. It's considered the traditional coronation crown of English/British monarchs. George V, George VI, and Elizabeth II used it for their coronations. The heavier of the 2 crowns, it weighs 4.9 pounds and is set with 444 precious and semi-precious gemstones. Oh, a gal who's also a monarch cannot have too many stately crowns, can she?

4) Imperial Crown of Russia - First worn for the coronation of Catherine the Great in 1762 and last worn by Nicholas II in 1896. The crown also sat prominently on a chair when Nicholas opened the Russian Duma in 1906. Thankfully, it survived the Russian Revolution of 1917 and is currently on display at the Kremlin Armory Museum in Moscow, all 2,858 carats (or 4,936 single) diamonds, 75 Indian matte pearls and a 398.72-carat red spinel (once mistaken for a ruby).

5) Crown of Saint Wenceslas - Made in 1347 to use for the coronations of the Kings of Bohemia (modern-day Czechoslavia). Ferdinand V was the last to be crowned wearing it in 1836. The crown is reportedly 22-carat gold. The stones decorating it -- consisting of 19 sapphires, 44 spinels, 30 emeralds, and 1 red elbaite -- are polished and not cut in facets so the crown is old-world vintage, colorful and charming! But a terrible "legend" follows it: "Any usurper who places the crown on his head is doomed to die a violent death within a year." (source: Wikipedia + others) Since I'm a gal just having fun as an admirer, notusurperwould I be cursed placing it on my head?

I cannot identify all of the above👆 coronation crowns but am happy they survived the centuries of history, and I'd love to visit each and every one of them. If pressured, I could be persuaded to try them on. (No, no I shouldn't ... I couldn't, I shouldn't, please no, no, no ... oh if you insist, alright.👸🏻
How about you? Feel free to name them or reveal your favorites in the comments.


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Wednesday, November 24, 2021

Emperor: A New Life Of Charles V


I'm in the middle of reading: 
Emperor: A New Life Of Charles V by early modern historian, Geoffrey Parker, which was published in 2019, so this isn't my usual book review as I haven't finished the biography yet. However halfway through (on page 332 with 200 pages to go!) I can say it's meticulously researched and compelling to read. The section I'm on is where the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor is intent on wrangling in all those rebellious Lutheran German Princes who have broken away from Rome (and thus labeled Protestants) and taken theirs, as well as, Charles' subjects with them. As you might imagine, Emperor Charles is thinking, "What the hell! Those pesky heretics!!! Not gonna happen on my Christian watch!!!" So he's organizing talks and campaigns to deal with the German problem in his realm.

Charles of Habsburg was born on February 24, 1500, in Ghent, then called the Low Countries in the Netherlands, which today is Belgium. Son of Joanna of Castile and Philip of Habsburg, Charles was the grandson of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragan (present-day Spain), Mary of Burgandy (Belgium and the Netherlands) and Maximillian I of Habsburg, Archduke of Austria, as well as, the elected Holy Roman Emperor of the Germanies before Charles campaigned and won the title in 1519 at age 19 (upon Maximillian's death).

After the death of his grandparents, Charles V ruled over Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands, as well as, much of Italy, Central, and South America. He was an Emperor with a capital ''E," conquering, reorganizing, and protecting what the book calls the "world's first and most enduring transatlantic empire."


An artist's images of what Charles and his wife, Isabella would look like if they lived today.
I can't grasp doing the colossal research for this book. The author had to turn to documents and primary sources written in French, German, Spanish, Italian, Burgundian, English, Latin, Hungarian, as well as, the regional dialects in these languages like Castilian in Spain and Flemish in the Low Countries. 

          

Likewise, Charles V had to become proficient in many languages to rule over his vast lands, and of course, he had an overall fine education in philosophy, theology, the arts and was taught jostling, hunting, shooting, fishing, good manners, chivalry, to play music and dancing in his role as heir to the throne. His two closest in age sisters took classes with him. He studied mathematics as an adult to "escape the burden of affairs" of state for a few hours at night.

A lesser ruler with a weaker intellect and will couldn't have held such a diverse and enormous empire together for 40 years. At the time monarchs believed their roles were divinely ordained, and, the grandson of 4 sovereigns carried out his duty with conviction and gratitude to God. Charles worked tirelessly and constantly traveled throughout Europe attending to conflicts and ensuing problems by negotiating, writing up, and signing over 100,000 documents, edicts, and treaties. He asked for what he wanted  -- in point-by-point terms -- and got much of it. He called forth and oversaw major councils and diets of the day, as well as, met privately and publically with townspeople, officials, kings, and Popes. And when talking didn't lead to peace and agreement, he took rulers prisoner until they came around, as Charles was a capable and successful military commander and also lucky since the weather or an advisory's blunder often favored him. Moreover, Charles V strategized and knew how to seize an advantage.

Painted by Peter, Paul Rubens
It's a long, serious detailed biography. The nitty-gritty of the long-ago battles get somewhat tiring, yet you do come away with knowing what a brilliant, comprehensive mind Charles V had and why he came out on top. As Emperor, he appointed smart, capable people as regents during his absences. Regents included his wife, Empress Isabella over Spain; his aunt Margaret of Austria (and later when Margaret died) his sister Maria of Hungry over the Netherlands; and his brother, Ferdinand over Germany. Emperor Charles married his sister, Eleanor to King Francis I of France although the marriage didn't stop the rivalry or wars with France; a sister Isabeau to Christian II of Denmark; and another sister Catalina to the King of Portugal. 

Emperor Charles is a complex historical character. He was dutiful, patient, conscientious, dogmatic (i.e., inclined to lay down principles), a seeker of advice, a good listener, but also selfish, dogmatic (this time meaning opinionated and domineering), and a forceful ruler who always settled scores. Like many leaders and diplomats of a country, he told the truth, but not necessarily all of the truth, nor all of the time.👑

Habsburg siblings: Eleanor, Isabeau, Ferdinand, Maria, and Catalina

It's impossible to overlook how Charles manipulated Joanna I, his mother. She was the Queen of Castile, inheriting the Kingdom jointly with Charles, but he made sure she was left in the dark, and he ruled Spain solo. It's possible he thought she wasn't capable of statesmanship but the ends didn't justify the means. Periodically he visited his mother but kept her secluded from the world and secretly took her treasures for himself and his sister, Catalina's dowery which is appalling!
Eleanor, Charles, and Isabeau were born and raised in the Netherlands and took lessons together, sharing a tutor.

On the other hand, as Emperor, he never demanded more sacrifice or hard work from his family than he was already doing himself. At times he pressed some of his sisters into service to govern as his trusted regents over Habsburg territories when they wanted to step down. He administered hands-on leadership over his armies and subjects. Charles rode into battles and fought alongside his troops. He motivated and spent time with the men ... once staying on his horse in full armor for 21 hours; and to the extent possible he was accessible to his many subjects, those born aristocratic and lowly in his kingdoms whenever he visited. 

A few interesting facts about Charles V on the personal side:

1) He had 4 illegitimate children -- 3 before and 1 after his marriage to Isabella of Portugal (born in 1503). Yet during his marriage, there is no record of the Emperor ever having extra-marital affairs ... rather moral considering his immense power, lots of travels, and what powerful rulers could get away with during the 16th century.

2) The Habsburgs watched each other's backs. Sometimes Emperor Charles appealed to (critics might say shamelessly exploited) his siblings' loyalty and love for him to get them to act as regents for the Habsburg dynasty. The siblings cooperated and even spent time together after Charles abdicated and went into retirement. They managed to stay cohesive and put dynasty above ego, as well as, be close in their later years. 

3) Charles attended mass daily and without fail took a week off to participate fully in Holy Week devotionals every Easter. 

4) As devout as Charles V was to Catholicism (and indeed, he was pious all his life) when the Pope crossed the line into politics by siding with Francis I of France and sent troops against him (1526 - 1527), Charles defeated those armies and took the Pope hostage! It's the reason why Henry VIII of England was not granted his annulment against his popular Queen of 25+ years, Catherine of Aragon, to marry a woman who would have faired better as his mistress. Queen Catherine of England was Charles V's maternal aunt ... and with the pope as his prisoner, Henry was not going to get his divorce. In fact, it was a term the Pope had to agree to in the peace treaty to gain his freedom. Charles' troops had invaded and sacked Rome.

5) Charles had an enlarged lower jaw (mandibular prognathism) a congenital deformity that got worst in later Habsburg generations due to inbreeding.

Charles' and Isabella's surviving children: Philip II of Spain, Maria, and Joanna

6) When his wife, Empress Isabella, died from a fever after childbirth in 1539, Charles was so devastated, he locked himself away in a monastery for 2 months to grieve her. He never remarried and wore black for the rest of his life.

7) I haven't gotten to the part of the book where Charles abdicated as Emperor in 1556, but I find the fact that he knew when to relinquish power interesting, as well as, admirable. Due to acute arthritis (called gout) and his declining health, Charles knew he couldn't travel and reign as effectively as before, and the burden of ruling and traveling non-stop for 40 years exhausted him. The man was tired!!

8) Realizing it was too much for one person, Charles V divided the Habsburg Empire into two parts, giving Spain, the Netherlands, and parts of Italy and America to his son, Philip II to rule ... and Austria, and the German states to his brother, Ferdinand I -- the next elected Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V's daughter, Maria, married her 1st cousin, Maximillian II, who also became the Holy Roman Emperor (= Charles' nephew and brother, Ferdinand I's son). Charles and Isabella's other surviving child, Joanna, married another 1st cousin, Prince (later King) John Manuel of Portugal. Joanna became the Regent of Spain during her brother, Philip II's absence and marriage to Queen Mary Tudor, Philip's 1st cousin. All the family intermarriages occurred for the purpose of keeping the territories in Habsburg hands, but over the generations, it also weaken the dynasty as defects in recessive genes lead to horrible birth defects including the inability to produce healthy heirs in Spain.

Photo by Alonso de Mendoza of His Majesty's bed and the room where he died.

After his public abdication in the Netherlands in October 1556, Charles V left for Spain persuading his two widowed sisters, Eleanor of France and Maria of Hungry to accompany him. He lived in lovely quarters at the Monastery of Yuste from January 1557 until September 21, 1558, dying from malaria at the age of 58 while clutching the same cross that his wife, Isabella, held in her hands when she died.

Pantheon of the Kings

Well, it's back to page 332 for me. I think reading 10 - 15 pages per sitting is about right to keep a myriad of historical details straight. Common sense and intuition tell me Charles isn't done with the Germans, French, or Turks, and none of them are done with him either. What's more, the "taming of America" is coming up in a later chapter. Oh, taming Americans, eh ... I'd like to see him try.😁 

For sure, this biography of a remarkable Emperor, the most powerful man of his time, is a riveting read for a history buff!


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